COUNTERING RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM IN EAST AFRICA A CASE FOR ISLAMIC ENTREPRENEURSHIP

 COUNTERING RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM IN EAST AFRICA

A CASE FOR ISLAMIC ENTREPRENEURSHIP

                                                                                     

Omar Kalinge

East Africa will continue to be a hotbed for radicalization for some time and therefore a major theatre for the war on terror. The academic literature on radicalization and violent extremism in East Africa is numerous and varied. Several factors are believed to drive the trend. Economic decline, violent conflicts and lack of strong and legitimate states are some of them. At another level the threat to traditional values and way of life and religious orientation that comes from globalization could be a determining factor. In many cases it is attributed to the perception of threats, the youth bulge, lost opportunities, identity and marginalization.

As there is no single driver to radicalization, and as not every radicalized individual turns into a violent extremist, it is correct to focus on one driver at a time and find the appropriate response to it. The objective should be to stem the transition of individuals from radicalization to violent extremism. For it has even been argued that radicalization, especially youth radicalization is not normatively bad, or it must not be stopped. It can be an entry point for social mobilization and social change.

This paper focuses on one driver- economic deprivation (which often breeds a sense of marginalization). It argues that if sufficient attention is given to job creation, especially amongst the large youth population, some gains can be made in the fight against violent extremism, as there would be fewer recruits. In exploring the Islamic Entrepreneurship notion, this paper will prove that Islam is not only compatible with entrepreneurship, it also warmly invites all Muslims to be entrepreneurs in their lives.

It notes that radicalization and violent extremism is not only religious or Islamic in nature as is often lazily advanced. But there is sufficient radicalization amongst the Muslim communities in East Africa to deserve specific attention. One such intervention is Islamic Entrepreneurship.

As the paper delves into the foundations of entrepreneurship in Islam it can be a good guide for any individual or organization that may wish to use entrepreneurship as a counter-radicalization measure within the Muslim community. It underscores the well-known fact that Islam is a complete way of life and interventions within a Muslim community must be culturally sensitive to what a Muslim regards s permissible or not.

Overview of unemployment in Uganda and Kenya

East Africa is a hotbed for radicalization. It is, therefore, a major theatre for the war on terror. The academic literature on radicalization and violent extremism in East Africa is numerously diverse. Several factors are believed to drive the trend. Economic decline, violent conflicts and lack of strong and legitimate states are some of them. At another level, the threat to traditional values and way of life and religious orientation that comes from globalization could be a determining factor. In many cases it is attributed to the perception of threats, the youth bulge, lost opportunities, identity and marginalization.

An April 2014 report in the Digital Standard could not be more dramatic: “Youth unemployment ticking time bomb as numbers hit 1.5 million”. Over a third of these unemployed are young people between the ages of 15 and 24. 
(http://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/article/2000159420/youth-unemployment-ticking-time-bomb-as-numbers-hit-1-5-million)

A World Bank report released in March 2016 paints a grim picture.

The report officially put Kenya’s rate of unemployment — now standing at three times that of the neighboring Uganda and Tanzania — as also among the highest in the world.

The report noted that nearly one in every five Kenyan youths of working age had no job compared to Uganda and Tanzania where about one in every 20 young people is jobless, underlining the harsh economic reality that Kenyan youths are facing. Unemployment among Kenya’s youth is now estimated to stand at 17.3 per cent compared to six percent for both Uganda and Tanzania.

Mass joblessness, especially among the sprightly and innovative youth, is a drag on the economy because it forces unemployed adults to depend on the small working class, stretches family resources and consumes savings for future investments. The report notes that mass unemployment continues to deny Kenya the opportunity to put its growing labour force to productive use, thereby “denying the economy the demographic dividend from majority young population”.

World Bank economists says the problem is mainly compounded by the fact that Kenya’s ability to create new jobs has lagged behind population growth, resulting in narrow formal opportunities, especially for entry-level workers fresh from college.

(http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/Kenya-tops-East-Africa-s-list-of-youth-joblessness/-/2558/3109420/-/1120u3z/-/index.html)

In 2014, A National Employment Policy was developed to address rising youth unemployment, which has been blamed for insecurity, disillusionment and radicalization among young Kenyans. The impact of the policy is yet to be felt.

 Source World Bank, 2016

Unemployment figures in Uganda and Tanzania are not impressive either.

According to the International Labor Organization (ILO) definition, Uganda’s measured unemployment rates are relatively low for the region though they have been increasing over time (from 1.9 percent in 2005/06, to 3.6 percent in 2009/10, and recently to 5.1 percent in 2012). At the same time, the characteristics of the unemployed vary widely. Urban youth are more likely to be unemployed (12 percent) than rural youth (3 percent). In addition, female youth are twice as likely to be unemployed compared to male youth. Interestingly, the report notes that unemployment increases with the level of education attained: Unemployment is lower among persons with no education and primary education, and higher among those with secondary education and above. This is not to negate the importance of education—as it is widely known that education is a significant factor in securing good employment over time—however, the more educated are biased towards wage-paying formal jobs, which are harder to find. Indeed, persons with education above the secondary level are more likely to be in wage employment (59.1 percent) compared to those with primary education (18 percent), and their earnings tend to be higher.(Ahaibwe, Mbowa 2014)

Recognizing that micro-, small- and medium-sized enterprises have been a considerable source of employment in Uganda, the government has promoted the culture of “self-employment” through microfinance. This kind of intervention dates back to the late 1990s when the government introduced the Youth Entrepreneurial Scheme (YES). The YES program was designed as a loan scheme for youth who wished to venture into business. The scheme did not perform as anticipated because it was largely perceived as a political tool. While it was meant to be a loan, it ended up being a handout with very low (if any) recoveries made.

Despite the glaring poor performance of the credit program, the government continued to use microfinance as a way of addressing constraints to starting and running businesses. It is hoped that the present lending model through financial intermediaries or commercial banks will circumvent the challenges faced with the YES scheme. For example, since 2011/12, three venture capital funds—the Youth Venture Capital Fund in 2011/12, Graduate Venture Fund, and the Youth Livelihood Programme- were been introduced to target youth who wish to venture into business. However,a recent evaluation study notes that these venture capital funds are based in urban settings, have stringent criteria attached to them (e.g., a requirement of collateral), are less likely to be accessed by rural youth in agriculture, and are not very likely to solve the unemployment problem.

There have been concerns that loans based on issuance of interest automatically exclude Muslim youth whose religion forbids such transactions, thus accentuating the every growing feeling marginalization amongst Muslim youth.

The Muslim communities in East Africa have the capacity to confront this growing unemployment problem using the inspiration from its rich tradition based on the Qur’an and Sunnah of the prophet Muhammad.

Entrepreneurship is a part of Islamic culture and Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him, PBUH) and his companions are examples of this," there are a lot of Muslims that are successful entrepreneurs in the world and Islam always invites all Muslims to be innovative, entrepreneurial and active but unfortunately through time Muslims have lost their confidence (Hernández,  Noruzi, Sariolghalam, 2010).

DefiningEntrepreneurship

Bob Reiss, successful entrepreneur and author of Low-Risk, High-Reward: Starting and Growing Your Small Business With Minimal Risk, says: "Entrepreneurship is the recognition and pursuit of opportunity without regard to the resources you currently control, with confidence that you can succeed, with the flexibility to change course as necessary, and with the will to rebound from setbacks"(Hupalo, 2007).

A key factor in Reiss's definition is that entrepreneurs undertake opportunities regardless of the resources the entrepreneur currently controls. Entrepreneurs find ways to acquire the resources they need to achieve their goals. One of those resources is capital. "Entrepreneurial" is often associated with venturesome or creative. They should be creative in acquiring the resources they need to build and grow their business. They think outside the box and they'll improve their chances of acquiring what they need to succeed (Hupalo, 2007).

The concept of entrepreneurship has a wide range of meanings. On the one extreme an entrepreneur is a person of very high aptitude who pioneers change, possessing characteristics found in only a very small fraction of the population. On the other extreme of definitions, anyone who wants to work for himself or herself is considered to be an entrepreneur (Hupalo, 2007).

Another definition of entrepreneurship is “the assumption of risk and responsibility in designing and implementing a business strategy or starting a business” (Investor words, 2006).

According to the business dictionary, entrepreneurship is “the capacity and willingness to undertake conception, organization, and management of a productive venture with all attendant risks, while seeking profit as a reward”.

In economics, entrepreneurship is regarded as a factor of production together with land, labour, natural resources, and capital. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation and risk-taking, and an essential component of a nation's ability to succeed in an ever-changing and more competitive global marketplace (Business dictionary,2009).

Schumpeter's View of Entrepreneurship

Austrian economist Joseph Schumpeter's definition of entrepreneurship placed an emphasis on innovation, such as:

• New products

• New production methods

• New markets

• New forms of organization

Wealth is created when such innovation results in new demand. From this viewpoint, one can define the function of the entrepreneur as one of combining various input factors in an innovative manner to generate value to the customer with the hope that this value will exceed the cost of the input factors, thus generating superior returns that result in the creation of wealth (Entrepreneurship, 2007).

Definition and Characteristics of an entrepreneur

An entrepreneur: somebody who sets up a business or enterprise. Or an entrepreneur typically demonstrates effective application of a number of enterprising attributes, such as creativity, initiative, risk taking, problem-solving ability, and autonomy, and will often risk his or her own capital to establish a business (BNET, 2006).

The word entrepreneur originates from the French word, entrepreneur, which means "to undertake." The Merriam-Webster Dictionary presents the definition of an entrepreneur as one who organizes, manages, and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise (entrepreneurship, 2007).

Wiki dictionary Definition for Entrepreneur

• A person who takes the risk of turning an opportunity into profit.

• A person who takes the risk of managing and operating a business or businesses; term often used:

(a)                for one who does this for one or more businesses that he or she entirely or largely helps to create;

(b)               for one who takes on ownership, or significant ownership, of one or more business franchises.

• A person who creates one or more new nonprofit organizations, or one or more units of such organizations, and often has a key part in managing and operating the new entity or entities. Such a person is sometimes referred to as a ''nonprofit entrepreneur'' or ''not-for-profit entrepreneur'', and occasionally as a ''public entrepreneur''.

• A person who is talented or prolific at developing new programs inside existing organizations (BNET, 2006).

Characteristics of an Entrepreneur

The US Department of Labor predicted that the employer in 2010 would be "self." An Internet poll of 25-44 year olds revealed that 90% of them hoped to own their own businesses. A survey conducted by Ernst & Young found that 75% of influential Americans believe that entrepreneurship will be the defining trend of the 21st century. Some of the factors that have attributed to the rise of the modern day entrepreneurial spirit are access to technology, a global economy and corporate stagnation. Some of common characteristics of entrepreneurs are:

• Responsible

• Hard Worker

• Risk Taker

• Creative

• Flexible

• Follows through with ideas

• Personable

• Optimistic

• Perceptive

• Self-confident

• Determined

• High degree of energy

• Innovative

• Independent

• Ability to anticipate needs

• Effective communicator

• Responsive to criticism

• Able to take the lead

• Learn from mistakes

• Self-directed

 (Casto, 2008).

Entrepreneurship vs. Small Business

Many people use the terms "entrepreneur" and "small business owner" synonymously. While they may have much in common, there are significant differences between the entrepreneurial venture and the small business.

Entrepreneurial ventures differ from small businesses in these ways:

1.                  Amount of wealth creation - rather than simply generating an income stream that replaces traditional employment, a successful entrepreneurial venture creates substantial wealth.

2.                  Speed of wealth creation - while a successful small business can generate a lot of profit over a lifetime, entrepreneurial wealth creation often is rapid; for example, within 5 years.

3.                  Risk - the risk of an entrepreneurial venture must be high; otherwise, with the incentive of sure profits many entrepreneurs would be pursuing the idea and the opportunity no longer would exist.

4.                  Innovation - entrepreneurship often involves substantial innovation beyond what a small business might exhibit. This innovation gives the venture the competitive advantage that results in wealth creation. The innovation may be in the product or service itself, or in the business processes used to deliver it (Entrepreneurship, 2007).

Islam and Entrepreneurship

Islam, currently the world’s second largest religion (Hill, 2008), is described in the Qur’an as the submission to the will of Allah or God (Cullen and Parboteeah, 2008). The origins of Islam can be traced back to the Prophet Muhammad who is seen as the ‘final agent of God’s revelation (Ludwig, 2001: 428).

Islam views extrinsic aspects of work positively. It is clear that the Islamic work ethic argues that engagement in economic activities is an obligation (Yousef, 2000). Work is thus the source of independence and the means to achieve a fulfilled life. The Qur’an speaks in favor of free trade and legitimate profit so long as it is consistent with Islamic ethics and does not exploit others (Ludwig, 2001).

In fact, Islam encourages prosperity through the appropriate use of the resources given by God. Such resources are seen as important to provide for basic survival and physical needs as well as accumulation of wealth (Kriger and Seng, 2005). As such, it is clear that those employees believing in Islam are likely to pursue extrinsic work values as such values are consistent with Islamic teachings. We thus expect that Islamic employees will also view the extrinsic aspect of their work positively as for ‘Muslims, economic life is thus seen as a means to a spiritual end, where prosperity means the living of a virtuous life’ (Kriger and Seng, 2005: 777).

Islamic teachings also suggest a positive relationship between Islam and intrinsic work values. As Islamic adherents approach work, they are likely to view the intrinsic aspects of work (i.e. having an interesting job or a job useful to society, etc.) positively, as ‘work is considered to be a source of independence and a means of fostering personal growth, self-respect, satisfaction, and self-fulfilment’ (Yousef, 2000: 515). Thus the Islamic work ethic encourages adherents to view the intrinsic aspects of work positively. As mentioned earlier, intrinsic aspects relate to openness to change and the pursuit of initiative and creativity at work.

The Islamic work ethic clearly emphasizes creative work as an important source of accomplishment (Yousef, 2001: Parboteeah, 2009, p.57).

The pursuit of wealth must be accompanied by intention, means, management and usage as stipulated by Islam. Entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs have a special place in Islam. The call for Muslim to be in business is complete.

Possession of wealth is allowed based on the following principles:

The standard definition of money in the contemporary economy is a commodity that is generally accepted as a medium of exchange. However, this definition is only partly accepted from the Islamic economic concept. Islam acknowledges the fact that money is a medium of exchange, hence should function as a measure of value. Yet, Islam strongly dismissed that money is a commodity by itself (Ismail, 2006, p.9).

• Allah is the absolute owner of wealth

• Allah created wealth in abundance and sufficient for all

• Wealth is created for mankind

• Wealth is entrusted to mankind

Al-Qurtubi’s five elements formula for success

What motivates Muslim entrepreneurs? Hamat (1992) explains that success as mentioned in the al-Quran is associated with words like falaha, aflahaand the verbs faza, fauzan. Wherever those verbs are found in the Quran, there will always be conditions and relationships with other factors that may lead to success or failure (Radiniz, 2007).

The five elements of success according to Al Qurtubi are:

• Halal – Livelihood that are in accordance to what is being outlined by Allah and shariah.

• Qanaah – Be pleased and thankful with one’s earning

• Taufiq-Asking for the blessing of Allah in proportion to one’s expectation

• Sa’adah-Spiritual happiness

• Jannah – Worldly success should act as the bridge to the ultimate success in the life hereafter (paradise).

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Success therefore encompasses both the worldly and the hereafter. Muflihmay also be interpreted as success. It means to achieve what is desired; happiness in both worlds; prosperity; free from worries, difficulties, or mental anguish. Usually, success is akin to ‘receiving’ (attaining), but Islam also propagates ‘giving’ as a rightful pair to the term success.

Ghazali’s seven steps to success:

Imam Al Ghazali in his book Minhajul ‘Abidin, outlined seven steps for success (Radiniz, 2007):

• Knowledge and gnosis (ma’rifat) stage;

• Repentance (taubat) stage;

• Temptation stage;

• Obstacles stage;

• Motivation stage;

• Imperfections stage; and

• Praise and thankful (shukur) stage.

Islamic Entrepreneurship

The Islamic society has witnessed vigorous economic activity since the Prophet (PBUH) first migrated to Medina form Makkah.

To this agrarian community was added a group of experienced traders from Mecca, a great center of inter-regional trade. Monetization came early, and the ban on unequal exchange of similar “fungibles” seems to have facilitated the process.

According to Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, published 1913 by C. & G. Merriam Co, “Fungibles” are defined as:

	1.	(Civ. Law) Things which may be furnished or restored in kind, as distinguished from specific things; - called also fungible things.
	2.	(Scots Law) Movable goods which may be valued by weight or measure, in contradistinction from those which must be judged of individually.

Muslims started with Byzantine gold dinars and Persian silver dirham, but early on they began to mint their own coins. The state had a monopoly on coinage, and any tampering with their weight or purity was severely punished (Ismail, 2006, p.2).

Besides being holistic in approach, Islamic entrepreneurship dictates that the individual must first be a religious person, then a practitioner (religious person who also practice what s/he learns). The benevolent person submits only to the Almighty. Through his/her vocation the person is expected to perform his/her duties as an ibadahand entrusted with the role of a responsible leader (khalifah) (Radiniz, 2007).

The concept of entrepreneurship in Islam also bases on co-operation, generosity and benevolence. That is why Islam really encourages ‘uqud al-tabarruator unilateral contract such as loan (al-Qard) in order to promote cooperation and inculcate sense of brotherhood amongst Muslims.

At the same time Islam extremely prohibited monopoly, exploitation, fraud or usurious transactions. In other words, every entrepreneur should always preserve the good deeds and avoiding the evil such as being honest, fair, and accurate in every transaction (Ismail, 2006, pp.12-13).

Islamic Entrepreneurship is derived from Eight Principles

1.                  Entrepreneurship is an integral part of Islamic religion.

2.                  By virtue of human nature, the Muslim entrepreneurs are ‘khulafah’ (vicegerents of Allah) and have the responsibilities developed properly and see business as part of ibadahor good deed.

3.                  Motivation – success in Islam is not merely measured by the end result but also the way and means of achieving them.

4.                  Ibadah– business activity is part of ibadahor “good deed”

5.                  Position of Entrepreneurship and business in Islam – Islam encourages its ummahto venture into business. Prophet Muhammad S.A.W expounded that 9 out 10 sources of rizq (lawful sustenance)  can be found in business.

6.                  Islamic Economic System - Islamic Entrepreneurship should operate within the domain of Islamic Economic system and act as the vehicle towards global acceptance of Islamic Economic System.

7.                  Guiding Principles of Islamic Entrepreneurship is by the al-Quran and al-Hadith ( orSunnah).

8.                  Entrepreneurial Ethics are based on exemplary conducts of Prophet Muhammad S.A.W (Radiniz, 2007)

Islamic Entrepreneurship as Integral part of the Religion

Islam is a complete way of life. There is no separation between business and religion. Islam has its own entrepreneurship culture and guiding principles based on the Al-Quran and Hadith to guide business operation.

By virtue of the human nature, the person must firstly be a Muslim, then an entrepreneur. S/He has the responsibility to perform ‘ibadah’ and be a ‘khalifah’. A Muslim entrepreneur should search for God’s blessings above all other factors. Muslim entrepreneurs perform business not solely for profit, but above all, to fulfill the ‘fardhukifayah’ (collective responsibility, which if performed by some suffices for all).

Muslim Entrepreneurship Ethics can be summarized as follows:

• To prevent laziness – entrepreneurship requires hard work

• To eradicate fear – risk taking is necessary

• To search for legitimate ventures

• To avoid forbidden sources of income and property

• To show gratitude and thankfulness of whatever has been acquired

• To grow and develop capital and profit

• To diversify business ventures

• To avoid greediness

The Ethical Behaviour of Muslim Entrepreneurship

• To avoid malicious behaviour towards competitors

• To avoid squandering

• To avoid stinginess

• To pay alms (zakat)

• Trustworthiness

• To pray consistently

• Tawakkal (full trust in and dependency on the will of Allah)

• Patience (Swabr)

• Qana’ah (satisfaction with one’s earnings)

Conclusion

The paper has delved into the foundations of entrepreneurship in Islam and can be a good guide for any individual or organization that may wish to use entrepreneurship as a counter radicalization measure within the Muslim community. It underscored the well-known fact that Islam is a complete way of life and interventions within a Muslim community must be culturally sensitive to what a Muslim regards as permissible or not.

Entrepreneurs have to have objectives and targets but these are subservient to the ultimate objective of acquiring the blessing of Allah s.w.t. In Islam, to indulge in business is to perform an obligatory duty (fardhukifayah); unless and until there is an entrepreneur in a community, the entire community is deemed to be sinful!

That’s how seriously Islam perceives and encourages entrepreneurship. Profits are merely incidental in the fulfilment of the fardhukifayah. But that does not imply weakened profit motivating among practitioners. Profits are encouraged in order to prosper the community through donations, taxes, zakah, sadaqah, tithes and the like. With the Islamic “ubudia” (state of servitude for achieving success for Muslim entrepreneurs are unique.

• Success in Islam is not merely measured by the end result, but also the means and ways of achieving them.

• Entrepreneurship is the symbol of business steadfastness and achievement. Entrepreneurial revolution is critical to economic growth. Entrepreneurship may affect our future in many ways:

• Innovative creation of opportunity

• Entrepreneurship not only affects our lives through innovation but represents the working future for many of us due to lays off by governments, large organizations and shrinking of job opportunities for graduates.

• Entrepreneurship is synonymous to creation of new ventures and small businesses. 

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